Introduction thématique à la psychologie cognitive

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1 Introduction thématique à la psychologie cognitive
L1-psychologie Introduction thématique à la psychologie cognitive Mémoire Image mentale Emotion divers Cours réalisé par B. Putois Sept 2008

2 La mémoire Chapitre I Dali. (1931).La persistance de la mémoire.
Transcription de l’interview de S.D. par Pierre Cardinal, interdit par la RTF de l’époque, diffusé en inédit par Arte le 28 octobre 1993 (copyright Ina 1975): Pierre Cardinal: Vous avez souvent prétendu qu’en vous repliant dans la position embryonnaire vous aviez accès au paradis prénatal. Pouvez-vous nous dire si vous avez réellement conservé des souvenirs de la vie intra-utérine ? Salvador Dali: Ah oui, j’ai des souvenirs très nets de.., Freud m’a dit que ça devait correspondre aux deux derniers mois avant la naissance. Mais d’ailleurs il y a des personnages comme Casanova, dans ses mémoires, il prétend aussi se souvenir de sa vie inta-utérine. Moi je voyais des oeufs, des oeufs sur le plat et alors le blanc d’oeuf était phosphorescent. Il se contractait, il bougeait un peu comme les montres molles. Les montres molles, le côté mou vient de cet espèce de paradis intra-utérin dans lequel on est plongé dans un espèce de milieu visqueux et mou et dans lequel on se sent complètement protégé du monde extérieur. C’est une espèce de Nirvanâ, une espèce de paradis sublime de l’obscurité, dans la chaleur et dans lequel on a uniquement des visions provoquées probablement par la pression des poings sur les orbites. Parce que, quand on presse très fort sur les orbites, on voit ce qu’on appelle scientifiquement des phosphènes. Et les petits enfants, - je me souviens que on jouait à se presser les orbites jusqu’à la douleur avec les doigts pour voir surgir des anges. On disait - ces cercles en couleur, on les appelait des anges, ce qui faisait allusion à la vie intra-utérine. Et d’ailleurs Otto Rank, dans son « Traumatisme de la naissance », montre que quand on passe de ce milieu absolument paradisiaque au monde extérieur, où il y a trop de lumière, où tout est dur, c’est pour ça que les enfants pleurent et en plus c’est accompagné à la naissance très souvent par un vrai traumatisme avec des symptômes d’asphyxie. Le mythe qui se forme à ce moment-ci, c’est le mythe du paradis perdu. On est chassé du paradis maternel et c’est pour ça que la plupart des suicidés veulent retrouver en se suicidant ce paradis perdu près duquel nous nous trouvons de façon partielle en se recroquevillant dans le sommeil et c’est pour ça que très souvent quand on approche après la fatigue à un sommeil très réparateur, et que presque on bave de satisfaction parce que l’on approche du sommeil, très souvent il y a une chose effrayante, on tombe dans le vide et on se réveille en sursaut. Et ça, justement c’est un rappel au traumatisme de la naissance, à cette idée de tomber dans le vide. Dali. (1931).La persistance de la mémoire.

3 ? La mémoire Comment nos connaissances sont-elles stockées?
La mémoire est-elle quantifiable? Arthur Conan Doyle au travers le personnage de Sherlock Holmes: e célèbre détective privé pensait que la mémoire était semblable à une pièce dans laquelle on stocke des informations. Cette pièce étant d’un espace restreint, Mr Holmes nous conseille de nous efforcer de ne stocker uniquement les informations importantes (pour la découverte de meurtriers par exemple). Certaines personnes qui stockent tout et n’importe quoi ont leur pièce en désordre et donc ne retrouvent pas les informations pertinentes. Ainsi Sherlock Holmes ne mémorisait que les informations sur ces enquêtes et était incapable de parler d’autres domaines que celui de sa profession! Les études sur la mémoire se posent la question suivante: Comment nos connaissances sont-elles stockées? ?

4 La mémoire L’hypothèse de différents types de mémoire: approche structurale La mémoire perceptuelle. Exemple: un mégot dans la nuit, la sonnerie au théâtre La mémoire sensorielle. (300 ms) Exemple: voir un objet La mémoire à court terme. (20s et 90s) Exemple: retenir un numéro de téléphone un court instant La mémoire à long terme. (>90s) Exemple: faire du vélo, connaissance culturelle, vos souvenir de vie La mémoire de travail. Exemple: retenir une suite de chiffre pour faire une addition MCT: Je peux retenir 7 plus ou moins 2 informations. On le mesure par l’empan (spam en anglais) digital ou nominal : distance maximale que je peux englober entre mon pouce et mon index. Miller (1956). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological Review, 63, Téléchargeable sur :

5 La mémoire

6 La mémoire

7 La mémoire Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp ). New York: Academic Press.

8 La mémoire L’hypothèse de différents types de mémoire à long terme:
Mémoire déclarative : Mémoire épisodique (auto-biographique) Mémoire sémantique Mémoire non-déclarative: Mémoire procédurale Conditionnement S-R Principe de la mémoire: Encodage  Stockage  Récupération Tulving, E. (1995). Organization of memory: quo vadis? In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neuroscience (pp ). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

9 La mémoire Effet de contexte :
On rappelle plus une information dans le même contexte physique ou émotionnelle que celui dans lequel nous avons acquis l’information. Expérience des plongeurs: Godden et Badelley (1973) Expérience d’imagination du contexte: Smith (1979) Education médicalisé: en classe versus à l’hôpital: Koens et al. (2003) Ryback RS. (1971). The continuum and specificity of the effects of alcohol on memory. A review. Q J Stud Alcohol, 32(4): Godden, D. R.;, & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: on land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66 pt3, Smith, SM (1979). Remembering in and out of context. 3ournal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, Koens F, Ten Cate OT, Custers EJ. (2003). Context-dependent memory in a meaningful environment for medical education: in the classroom and at the bedside. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2003;8(2): Smith S. M.; Vela E.(2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: A review and meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, Volume 8, Number 2, 1 June 2001 , pp (18)

10 Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 11:671-84, 1972.
La mémoire Profondeur de traitement: Différentes tâches possibles lors de l’encodage, puis rappel libre. On ne dit pas au sujet qu’ils font un test de mémoire (apprentissage incident). A. Juger de la qualité plaisante ou non des mots (sémantique) B. Identifier la présence ou non de E (structural) C. Compter le nombre de lettres (structural) D. Mémorisation intentionnelle Plus l’analyse de l’information est complexe, plus on mémorise l’information. Exercice interactif pour comprendre la profondeur de traitement: Craik F I M & Lockhart R S. Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 11:671-84, 1972.

11 Croisile, B. (à paraître). Les saisons de la mémoire. Odile Jacob.
« Créer un souvenir, c’est mémoriser la synchronisation de différentes traces mnésiques multimodale qui ont été activé dans un même moment et un même endroit. Je ne retrouve pas un souvenir, je recréé un souvenir en cherchant toutes les activations qui ont lieu en même temps. Ce qui est salvateur pour la récupération du souvenir. » dixit Bernard Croisile, Lyon, 2008. Pour aller plus loin (lecture en français): - Versace , R., et al. (2002). La mémoire dans tous ses états. Solal. - Nicolas, S. (2000). La mémoire humaine, ue perspective fonctionnaliste. L’harmattan. Croisile, B. (à paraître). Les saisons de la mémoire. Odile Jacob.

12 Vision et images mentales
Chapitre II Vision et images mentales

13 Voir, rêver, imaginer, est-ce la même chose?
Vision & Imagerie Voir, rêver, imaginer, est-ce la même chose? Description: Lien entre vie onirique et vie réelle, la vue d’un ivrogne est identique dans les rêves. Lien avec les émotions, l’expérience et les connaissances activées pendant les rêves. Introduction: Le terme image mentale est utilisé en philosophie, dans le domaine de la communication et en psychologie cognitive pour décrire la représentation cérébrale mémorisée ou imaginée d’un objet physique, d'un concept, d’une idée, ou d'une situation. Le concept d’images mentales est central en philosophie classique et moderne, car indissociable de l’étude de la connaissance. Dans son livre VII de la République, Platon utilise la métaphore bien connue d'un prisonnier dans une caverne, enchaîné et immobilisé, qui tourne le dos à l'entrée et ne voit sur le mur qui lui fait face que son ombre et celles projetées d'objets placés loin derrière eux. Cette métaphore expose en termes imagés le périlleux cheminement des hommes vers la connaissance de la réalité réduite dans l’esprit des êtres humains à des représentations construites à partir d’images simplifiées et déformées perçus par nos sens. Platon évoque également la non moins difficile transmission des connaissances qui se heurte à l’aveuglement et à la laborieuse confrontation des représentations mentales issues d’expériences différentes. Au XVIIIe siècle, George Berkeley a développé des idées semblables dans sa théorie de l’idéalisme. Selon Berkeley, la réalité n’existerait qu’à travers nos images mentales, celles-ci n’étant pas des représentations de réalité matérielle, mais la réalité elle-même. Cependant, Berkeley, a clairement distingué les images relatives à la connaissance du monde extérieur, des images issues de l'imagination individuelle. Selon Berkeley, seulement les dernières ne peuvent être considérées faire partie de l’«imagerie mentale» dans le sens contemporain du terme. L'auteur britannique, également au XVIIIe siècle, Dr. Samuel Johnson, alors qu’on lu demandait ce qu’il pensait de l'idéalisme (en promenade en Ecosse) à répondu « voyez comme je le réfute ! » en donnait un coup de pied sur un gros rocher qui fit rebondir sa jambe. Il montrait ainsi que l’idée d’un rocher n’existant qu’à travers une image mentale, sans existence matérielle, à proprement parler, était une bien piètre explication des causes de la douloureuse qu'il venait d’éprouver. Les critiques du réalisme scientifique se demandent comment la perception intérieure des images mentales se produit réellement. On se réfère quelques fois au « problème de l'homoncule » (voir également l'œil de l'esprit). Ce problème revient à se demander comment les images affichées sur un écran d'ordinateur existent dans la mémoire de ce dernier. Pour le matérialisme scientifique, les images mentales et leur perception ne peuvent être issues que d’états mentaux. Selon ces philosophes, les réalistes scientifiques ne peuvent pas expliquer où les images et leurs percepteurs existent dans le cerveau. Ces critiques avancent que les neurosciences n’ont pas réussi à identifier dans le cerveau des composants, processus ou mémoire qui traiteraient et stockeraient des images d’une manière analogue à une carte graphique et sa mémoire dans un ordinateur. [wikipédia.fr] Fredéric Othon Theodore Aristidès (1977). La mémoire, Philémon aux pays des lettres de l’atlantique. p.28

14 Vision & Imagerie Hypothèse de Kosslyn:
L’esprit humain traite des images mentales comme une perception visuelle. (ce qui sous-entend que le substrat neurobiologique et les processus de la perception visuelle sont les mêmes que ceux de l’imagerie mentale visuelle). Hypothèse de Pylyshyn: L'esprit d'humain traite des images mentales en les décomposant en propositions mathématique fondamentale. Une métaphore des années 1970 tentait de rapprocher le fonctionnement du cerveau à celui de l’ordinateur en tant que processeur séquentiel de l’information. Zenon Pylyshyn, Computation and Cognition : Toward a foundation for Cognitive Science, MIT Press, Il présentait la cognition comme une forme de calcul et soutenait que le contenu sémantique des états mentaux était codé de la même façon que celui des représentations d'ordinateur - Etat d’un réseau formé par l’ensemble des états des neurones et interconnexions y participant. Le psychologue Zenon Plyshyn a développé une théorie selon laquelle l'esprit d'humain traite des images mentales en les décomposant en propositions mathématique fondamentale. Roger Shepard et Jacqueline Metzler (1971) se sont opposés à cette affirmation en présentant à des personnes une figure composée de lignes représentant un objet en trois dimensions et en leur demandant de déterminer si d'autres figures étaient la représentation du même objet après rotation dans l'espace. Shepard et Metzler ont supposé que si nous nous décomposions, puis recomposions mentalement les objets en propositions mathématiques de base - comme le suggérait la pensée dominante de l'époque par analogie au traitement d'une ordinateur - le temps pour déterminer si l'objet était identique ou pas aurait alors été indépendant du degré de rotation de l'objet. Or, cette expérience montrait, au contraire, que ce temps était proportionnel au degré de rotation qu'avait subi l'objet sur la figure. Shepard et Metzler ont ainsi pu en déduire que le cerveau humain maintient et manipule les images mentales en tant qu'entités topographiques et topologiques globales. Des études plus récentes ont confirmé ces résultats en mettant en évidence que les gens sont plus lents à orienter mentalement des représentations de membres tels que des mains dans des directions incompatibles avec la rotation des articulations du corps humain (Parsons 2003) et que les patients dont un bras est blessé et douloureux sont plus lents à tourner mentalement un dessin de la main du côté du bras blessé (Schwoebel 2001). Certains psychologues, y compris Stephen Kosslyn, suggèrent que ces résultats sont dus à une interférence entre les zones du cerveau qui traitent les représentations visuelles et celles qui gèrent les représentations motrices. Kosslyn (1995 & 1994) conforte cette hypothèse, dans une série d'imageries cérébrales, en montrant où des objets tels que la lettre « F » sont maintenus et manipulés, en tant qu'images globales, dans le cortex visuel. Les sciences cognitives ont abouti à un relatif consensus sur le statut neural des images mentales. La plupart des chercheurs en psychologie et neurologie conviennent qu'il n'y a aucun homoncule (un système central qui gouvernerait l’ensemble ou un partie du cerveau) ni processus qui structurait la vision des images mentales. La façon dont ces images sont stockées et traitées, en particulier dans le langage, la communication et en relation avec notre environnement physique, demeure un domaine d'étude fertile (Rohrer 2006) à la croisée de plusieurs domaines : psychologie, neuroscience, philosophie. Pylyshyn., Z.W. (1973). What the mind’s eye tells tire mind’s brain: s critique of mental imagery. Psychol. Bull. Kosslyn, S.M. (1980). Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p.

15 Vision & Imagerie Shepard & Metzler (1971):
Effet de la rotation mentale Kosslyn (1973): Effet de la taille Kosslyn (1978): Effet de la distance Rotation: Other advocates of the spatial representation theory, Shepard and Metzler, developed the mental rotation task in Two objects are presented to a participant in different angles and his job is to decide whether the objects are identical or not. The results show that the reaction times increases linearly with the rotation angle of the objects. The participants mentally rotate the objects in order to match the objects to one another. This process is called "mental chronometry“. Together with Paivio's memory research, this experiment was crucial for the importance of imagery within cognitive psychology, because it showed the similarity of imagery to the processes of perception. For a mental rotation of 40° the subjects needed two seconds in average, whereas for a 140° rotation the reaction time increased to four seconds. Therefore it can be concluded that people in general have a mental object rotation rate of 50° per second. Size and the visual field: If an object is observed from different distances, it is harder to perceive details if the object is far away because the objects fill only a small part of the visual field. Kosslyn made an experiment in 1973 in which he wanted to find out if this is also true for mental images, to show the similarity of the spatial representation and the perception of real environment. He told participants to imagine objects which are far away and objects which are near. After asking the participants about details, he supposed that details can be observed better if the object is near and fills the visual field. He also told the participants to imagine animals with different sizes near by another. For example an elephant and a rabbit. The elephant filled much more of the visual field than the rabbit and it turned out that the participants were able to answer questions about the elephant more rapidly than about the rabbit. After that the participants had to imagine the small animal besides an even smaller animal, like a fly. This time, the rabbit filled the bigger part of the visual field and again, questions about the bigger animal were answered faster. The result of Kosslyn's experiments is that people can observe more details of an object if it fills a bigger part of their mental visual field. This provides evidence that mental images are represented spatial. Island experiment: In 1978, Kossylyn expanded his image screening experiment from objects to real distances represented on maps. In the picture you see our island with all the places you encountered in this chapter. Try to imagine, how far away from each other they are. This is exactly the experiment performed by Kossylyn. Again, he predicted successfully a linear dependency between reaction time and spatial distance to support his model. [en.wikibooks.org] Shepard RN, Metzler J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(972):701-3. Kosslyn, S. M. Scanning visual images: Some structural implications. Perception & Psychophysics, 1973, 14, Kosslyn SM. (1978). Measuring the visual angle of the mind's eye. Cognit Psychol, 10(3):

16 Vision & Imagerie Kosslyn et al. (1988):
Comparaison imagerie et vision. Pour aller plus loin dans le débat (en français): Excellent cours de N. Bedoin sur le débat et les méthodes de neuroimagerie. “To test the claim that images of letters are created one segment at a time, Kosslyn, Backer and Provost (1985; see also Kosslyn, Cave, Provost, & yon Gierke, 1986) showed subjects two X marks in an otherwise empty 4 • 5 grid and asked them whether both Xs would fall on a given uppercase letter ifit were present in the grid (as the letter appeared when it was actually presented previously). If the segments are imaged individually, then some will be present before others. If so, then the time it takes to atftrm that the X marks would fall on the letter will depend on the location of the segments on which they fell. And indeed, the location of the X marks proved to be critical in the imagery condition, with more time being required for marks that fell on segments located toward the end of the sequence of strokes typically used to draw it.” extrait de Kosslyn (1987). Seeing and Imagining in the Cerebral Hemispheres: A Computational Approach. Kosslyn SM, Cave CB, Provost DA, von Gierke SM. (1988).Sequential processes in image generation. Cognit Psychol. , 20(3):

17 Chapitre III Les émotions Munch, E. (1893). Skrik.

18 Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.
Existent-ils des émotions de bases? «... les jeunes et les vieux d'un très grand nombre de races, que cela soit chez les animaux ou les humains, expriment le même état d'esprit avec les mêmes mouvements. » L'Expression des émotions chez l'homme et les animaux (The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals) est un livre du naturaliste anglais Charles Darwin publié en 1872, sur la façon dont les animaux et les humains expriment et signalent aux autres leurs émotions. Avec son autre ouvrage, La Filiation de l'homme et la sélection liée au sexe, ce livre fait partie de la tentative de Darwin de poser des questions sur les origines et la psychologie de l'homme tout en utilisant sa théorie de l'évolution des espèces grâce au processus de sélection naturelle. Alors qu'il écrit De la variation des animaux et des plantes sous l'action de la domestication en 1866, Darwin a l'intention d'y inclure un chapitre concernant l'homme, mais le livre devient si volumineux qu'il décide d'écrire séparément un court essai sur les origines simiesques de l'homme, la sélection par le sexe et les expressions humaines. Cet essai se transforme finalement en deux larges volumes de La Filiation de l'homme et la sélection liée au sexe. Après avoir complété son travail sur La Filiation de l'homme en y apportant des preuves en janvier 1871, Darwin commence un nouveau livre, en utilisant les idées restantes sur l'expression des émotions. Il note dans son livre la nature universelle des expressions faciales : «... les jeunes et les vieux d'un très grand nombre de races, que cela soit chez les animaux ou les humains, expriment le même état d'esprit avec les mêmes mouvements. » Il est distrait par de longues révisions sur L'Origine des espèces, mais au printemps 1872 il publie L'Expression des émotions chez l'homme et les animaux, qui met l'accent sur une évolution partagée entre les espèces, contrastant avec le livre de Charles Bell, Anatomie et Physiologie des expressions qui clame qu'un être divin a créé les muscles de la face pour exprimer les sentiments humains. Darwin reçoit des réponses du monde entier à ses questionnaires, des photographies d'acteurs, de nourrissons, de retardés mentaux, il fait également des observations sur les expressions liées à la peine chez une famille endeuillée. Les preuves demandent une révision majeure, qui le « dégoûte du sujet, de lui-même et du monde ». Ce fut l'un des premiers livres avec des photographies, sept planches heliotype. L'éditeur, John Murray, avertit que cela « creuserait un trou important dans les profits ». L'Expression des émotions chez l'homme et les animaux fut très populaire et se vendit à plus de copies. [wikipédia.fr] Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

19 Emotions Existent-ils des émotions de bases?
Ekman devised a list of basic emotions from cross-cultural research on the Fore tribesmen of Papua New Guinea. He observed that members of an isolated, stone age culture could reliably identify the expressions of emotion in photographs of people from cultures with which the Fore were not yet familiar. They could also ascribe facial expressions to descriptions of situations. On this evidence, he concluded that some emotions were basic or biologically universal to all humans.[7] The following is Ekman's (1972) list of basic emotions: * sadness * happiness * anger * fear * disgust * surprise However in the 90s Ekman expanded his list of basic emotions to 15, notably including a greater range of positive emotions (e.g. Ekman 1999). [wikipedia.com] Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basics emotions? Psychological Review, 99,

20 Emotions Expérience de Hess (1975). Hypothèse:
De grandes pupilles rendent les gens plus attirants Hess Pupil Dilation Findings: Sex or Novelty?, The Social Behavior and Personality,  1998  by Aboyoun, Darren C,  Dabbs, James M Jr Pupil dilation research initially focused upon emotional reactions and then shifted almost entirely to information processing. The present study returns to the initial research and addresses the question of whether pupil dilation in response to nudity reflects general arousal or more specific sexual arousal. Among heterosexual subjects, pictures of opposite sex nudes should produce sexual arousal, while pictures of nudes of either sex should produce a general novelty reaction. Pupil dilation was monitored among men and women viewing pictures of clothed men, clothed women, nude men, and nude women. Pupils dilated more to nude pictures than to the clothed pictures, regardless ofthe sex of the subject or the sex of the target person being viewed. The poet Guillaume Bartas de Salluste called the eyes "windows of the soul" because of the information about internal processes that they convey (Hess & Polt, 1960, p. 349). This topic was examined in studies of pupil dilation among animals in the 1950's (Lowenstein & Loewenfeld, 1963) and among human beings in the 1960's and 1970's (Hess, 1965; Hess & Polt, 1960, 1964; Hess, Seltzer, & Shlien, 1965). The human research began with studies of emotion and shifted toward studies of information processing (Beatty & Ahern, 1979; Beatty & Wagoner, 1978). It is now generally accepted that pupil dilation increases with cognitive processing load (Beatty, 1986; Beatty & Ahern, 1979; Beatty & Wagoner, 1978; Hess & Polt, 1964). The current study returns to emotional responses, specifically responses associated with sexual thoughts in men and women. Hess and Polt (1960) found that the pupils of women dilated more to pictures of babies, mothers and babies, and nude men, while the pupils of men dilated more to pictures of landscapes and nude women. Bernick, Kling, and Borowitz (1968) found that pupil dilation was correlated negatively with heart rate and positively with reported erection among male subjects watching a pornographic film. Hamel (1974), in a study of pupil dilation among females viewing pictures of males and females undressing, found that pictures of males with the most clothing produced the least dilation. In this prior research, there was an emphasis upon the pupil dilation of men viewing pictures of nude women. In the present study, we measured pupil dilation in men and women viewing pictures of clothed women, clothed men, nude men, and nude women. We expected that sexual arousal might produce pupil dilation in response to opposite-sexed nude pictures, while novelty might produce pupil dilation in response to same- or opposite-sexed pictures. METHODS Subjects were 57 men and 50 women recruited from introductory psychology classes, mean age 21.4 years (S.D.=5.3). Four additional subjects who identified themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual and 26 subjects whose pupil dilation data contained extensive errors were eliminated. The problem of losing the data from so many subjects and a possible solution to this problem will be addressed in the discussion section. Each subject viewed on a computer screen a set of 28 pictures: 7 nude females, 7 clothed females, 7 clothed males, and 7 nude males. The pictures included African-American and Caucasian males and females. The pictures were ordered randomly in sets of 4, with each set containing a nude female, a nude male, a clothed female, and a clothed male. Responses to the first 4 pictures were used for familiarization and practice and were not included in the data analysis. The study employed a computer-controlled pupillometry system (Bernhardt, Dabbs, & Riad, 1996). Each picture was displayed for 4 sec, preceded by 4-sec display of grey, on a 15-in. monitor located approximately 18 in. in front of the subject, while the computer collected pupil diameter scores generated by an ISCAN (Cambridge, MA) pupillometry device. The system measured pupil diameter every 0.5 sec, producing 16 measurements per picture for each subject. RESULTS The data consisted of 16 pupil diameter measurements for each of the 24 pictures for each subject, or 384 scores per subject. Each score was converted to a percent of the subject's mean score. Scores more than 25% above or below the subject's mean (often resulting from eye blinks), were treated as missing data and set equal to 100. Scores were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance that treated Subject Sex as a between- subjects factor and Picture Sex, Picture Nudity, and Time as within-subjects factors. Results of the analysis are summarized in Table 1. The three most significant effects in Table 1 involved nudity and time: pupil size increased more over time when viewing nude than when viewing clothed stimuli. The other significant effects involved picture sex as well as nudity, reflecting especially large measures in pupil size when viewing nude males. Figure 1 shows the pattern of more dilation for nude than clothed stimuli. Figure 1 also shows the striking effect among all subjects across all stimuli of an initial sharp reduction in pupil size immediately after the onset of the stimulus. DISCUSSION Hess had emphasized dilation in response to nude opposite-sex pictures (Hess et al., 1965), but we found that pupil dilation to nudity occurred irrespective of the sex of the subject. It appeared that the novelty of nude pictures of either sex produced dilation, and the greater novelty of nude male pictures produced greater dilation. The striking drop in dilation immediately after the onset of the visual stimulus has been reported before (Young, Han, & Wu, 1992) but generally has not been attended to in pupillometry research by psychologists. The effect indicates that physical qualities of a visual stimulus in addition to its brightness value can effect the size of the pupil. One way of circumventing this problem is to use non-visual stimuli. Using non-visual stimuli has the additional advantage of allowing subjects to look wherever they wish rather than having to attend to visual stimuli presented by the experimenter. Research of this nature would be facilitated by using a miniature eye camera system mounted on a headband, which could monitor pupil dilation of subjects engaged in problem solving and social interaction in free-ranging conditions. Such a system would also prevent the loss of data arising from movements of the head. REFERENCES Beatty, J. (1986). Task evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources. Psychological Bulletin, 91, Beatty, J., & Ahem, S. (1979). Pupillary responses during information processing vary with scholastic aptitude test scores. Science, 205, Beatty, J., & Wagoner, B. L. (1978). Pupillometric signs of brain activation vary with level of cognitive processing.Science, 199, Bernick, N., Kling, A., & Borowitz, G. ( 1968). Physiologic differentiation of sexual arousal and anxiety. Psychosomatic Medicine, 33, Bernhardt, P. C., Dabbs, J. M., Riad, J. K. (1996). Pupillometry system for use in social psychology. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 28(1), Hamel, R. F (1974). Female subjective and pupillary reactions to nude male and female figures. Journal of Psychology, 87, Hess, E. H. (1965). Attitude and pupil size. Scientific American, 212, Hess, E. H., & Polt, J. M. (1960). Pupil size as related to the interest value of visual stimuli. Science, 132, Hess, E. H., & Polt, J. M. (1964). Pupil size in relation to mental activity in simple problem solving. Science, 143, Hess, E. H., Seltzer, A. L., & Shlien, J. M. (1965). Pupil responses of hetero- and homosexual males to pictures of men and women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, Lowenstein, O., & Loewenfeld, I. (1963). The pupil. In H. Davson (Ed.), The eye, (pp ). New York: Academic Press. Young, R. S., Han, B., Wu, P., (1993). Transient and sustained components of the pupillary responses evoked by luminance and color. Vision Research, 33(4), 437A46. Darren C. Aboyoun, M.A. and James M. Dabbs, Jr., Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Georgia State University. A B Hess, E (1975). Role of pupil size in communication. Scientific American, 233(5), 110ff. cité dans Meyer, A, & Hansen, C. Psychologie expérimentale.

21 Hypothèse: De grandes pupilles rendent les gens plus attirants
Emotions Hypothèse: De grandes pupilles rendent les gens plus attirants Eckhard Hess was born in Bochum, Germany on September 27, 1916, and the son of an artist, Heinrich Hess. He immigrated to the United States in 1927 where he became a naturalized citizen in He began his undergraduate studies at Blue Ridge College in Maryland in Two days after his birthday in 1942, Hess was married to Dorothea Nawiasky. The next year Hess began wartime service in the United States Army for two years. When he returned, he attended Johns Hopkins University for graduate study, earning his M.A. in 1947 and his Ph.D. in 1948. In 1953, he began his career as an associate professor at the University of Chicago, where he would go on to be head of the Psychology department in 1963 (Gale Literary Databases, 1999). During his time in Chicago, Hess was among those animal behaviorists that revived the study of imprinting in precocial birds, many years after Konrad Lorenz had done his initial work with imprinting (Stevenson, 1967). On imprinting, he published many books alone and with others including New Directions in Psychology (1962), and Imprinting: Early Experience and the Developmental Psychobiology of Attachment (1967). Hess also co-edited Early Behavior: Comparative and Developmental Approaches (1967), and Imprinting (1977). Hess dedicated the latter part of his life to the study of pupillometrics, which measures pupillary response to viewing emotionally charged stimuli. In 1967, he wrote a book titled The Tell-Tale Eye: How Your Eyes Reveal Hidden Thoughts and Emotions (1975), on this subject (Gale Literary Databases, 1999). Hess died of pneumonia in Cambridge, Maryland, on February 21, 1986. Theory When Hess set out to study imprinting, he like most psychologists approached it from a learning perspective. It was not long, though, until his research would put imprinting into a different light. His initial research soon showed that there was a difference between imprinting to a human and to a mallard decoy (Burghardt, 1978). Following the work of Lorenz, he looked for characteristics of the releasing stimuli that would strengthen the imprinting behavior. Hess' early work dealt with mallards and ring doves. He was the first psychologist to take mallards out of their natural setting and bring them into a lab to study imprinting. He was interested in the variability of following behavior to different stimuli. Hess used a unique apparatus to study following behavior in the mallards. He began by putting ducklings of different ages on a circular runway and introducing a male mallard decoy that would rotate around the path (See Figure 1). A microphone was attached to the decoy. By using this apparatus to study following behavior, Hess was able to standardize the test for imprinting and measure how responsive the ducklings were to the decoys. This could be done by vocalizations or distance traveled. The critical period for eliciting this following behavior is between 13 and 16 hours (Ramsey & Hess, 1954). It was this line of investigation that led Hess to believe, "the greater number of stimulus aspects found in the natural mother trigger innate physiological reactions and behavioral responses" (Burghardt, 1978). Hess also used this circular apparatus in another experiment using chicks. This time, he wanted to see the effect of introducing a mild electric shock to the chick during imprinting. Using a learning approach, one would assume that the duckling would fear the decoy by association, but instead Hess found that imprinting was strengthened in this situation. This showed that the critical period was important in imprinting and was affected by emotional excitation (Hess, 1961). This work led Hess to study the fear response in chicks which, in nature, increases the social bond with the parent animal and ends the critical period (Hess, 1959). The fear response ensures that no imprinting to other animals will take place because after the critical period, the chick exits an area when a strange animal enters (McGill, 1965). Klinghammer and Hess worked with ring doves to determine sexual preference. Forty-eight ring doves, ranging in age from four to 14 days were removed from their nest to act as subjects. The doves were divided into four groups. The AA group was isolated in individual cages. The AB group was isolated until weaning and then placed in a cage with other ring doves. Subjects in the BA group were raised until weaning by their parents, and then placed in isolation until testing. The BB group was the control because the doves were reared by their parents and lived in a dove community after weaning. After eight or nine months, the doves became sexually mature and were tested for sexual preference between a human and an opposite-sex species member. The AA group preferred humans if isolated at 6-9 days of age. The BA group was mixed, having two choose the human, two choose the ring dove, one choose both, and one choose neither. Both the AB and BB group members chose the species member. This research indicated that for this species, imprinting is reversible (Klinghammer and Hess, 1964). Another contribution that Hess made was in the intriguing study of pupillometrics in which pupil size and movement is measured to identify emotionally charged or complex stimuli. He initially studied pupillary response with his assistant at the University of Chicago, James M. Polt. They record the subject's eye dilations via a mirror that is angled toward a video camera. (See Figure 2). At first, the subject would look at a control slide with intensity similar to that of the stimulus slide they were about to witness. After viewing the control for approximately 10 seconds, they would be presented with the stimulus for 10 seconds. This pairing of control slide and stimulus slide would be repeated10 to 12 times. Hess and Polt would then measure the average size of the pupil for each of the control and experimental trials (Hess, 1959). He was initially hesitant to push forward with this line of research because there was a chance that illumination alone could affect the pupillary response. He conducted another experiment in which he used the natural room lighting for the control so that the screen would always be somewhat brighter during the experimental trials. The dependent variable was the percentage change in pupil size. Had the room lighting been the sole factor, the subjects' pupils would have constricted regardless of the stimulus present. Interestingly enough, female subjects tested showed a more positive change in pupil dilation for slides of a baby, a mother and baby, a male "pinup" figure, while the male subjects favored a female "pinup" figure and a landscape. This research showed that interesting or positive stimuli would cause dilation while negative stimuli would cause contraction. This sparked Hess' interest and he began to do more research in the field of pupillometrics (Hess, 1959). Using similar methods, Hess and Polt presented two identical pictures of a woman that differed in one aspect to a group of 20 men. In one, the size of her pupils had been greatly enlarged; while in the other, her pupils were extremely small. On average, the response by the men for the picture with the large pupils was twice that of the picture with the small pupils. After the experiment was completed, the men were asked to comment on the photographs and most of them stated that the two were identical. Of the few that did not state the photographs were identical, reports were given that one woman was "prettier" or "more feminine" (Hess, 1959). None of those tested had noticed the difference in the pupil size of the woman in the picture. Another finding by Hess was when he administered math problems while measuring pupillary change. In one study, a subject's pupil size is measured while they perform arithmetic problems mentally. The subject's eyes dilated until the point where the problem was solved and then constricted back to a normal range. In another study, subjects were given four multiplication problems and were measured for percentage change in pupil size. The change in dilation was a measure of how much effort the task took for each subject. The greater the increase in dilation indicated the more cognitive effort used during the task (Hess, 1959). Time Line 1916 Birth Immigrated to United States Received A. B. from Blue Ridge College Married Dorothea Burghard-Nawiasky Naturalized as a United States citizen; served in the United States Army Received Ph.D. from John's Hopkins University Joined faculty at University of Chicago, IL Published New Directions in Psychology Became head of Psychology Department at University of Chicago Retired from faculty at University of Chicago Published Imprinting: Early Experience and the Developmental Psychobiology of Attachment Published The Tell-Tale Eye: How Your Eyes Reveal Hidden Thoughts and Emotions Death References Bornstein, Marc H., Ed. (1980). Comparative Methods in Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, New Jersey. Burghardt, Gordon M. and Bekoff, M. (1978). The Development of Behavior: Comparative and Evolutionary Aspects. Garland STPM Press: New York. Gale Literary Databases (1999) Eckhard Hess (Biography) Retrieved from the World Wide Web on December 2, Hess, E. H. (1961) Influence of early experience on behavior. Paper presented before the American Psychological Association, New York State Divisional Meeting. Hess, E. H., & Hess, D. B. (1969) Innate factors in imprinting. Psychonomic Science, 14(3), Hess, E. H. (1959 In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, p Klinghammer, E., & Hess, E. H. (1964) Imprinting in an altricial bird: the blond ring dove. Science, 146, McGill, Thomas E., Ed. (1965) Readings in Animal Behavior. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.: New York. Ramsay, O., & Hess, E. H. (1954) A laboratory approach to the study of imprinting. Wilson Bull. 66, Stevenson, Harold W, Hess, Eckhard H., & Rhinegold, Harriet L., Ed. (1967) Early Behavior: Comparative and Developmental Approaches. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: New York. A B Hess, E (1975). Role of pupil size in communication. Scientific American, 233(5), 110ff. cité dans Meyer, A, & Hansen, C. Psychologie expérimentale.

22 Emotions Hypothèse: Nos pupilles se dilatent-elles en réponse à des images de nu(e)s? Hess Pupil Dilation Findings: Sex or Novelty?, The Social Behavior and Personality,  1998  by Aboyoun, Darren C,  Dabbs, James M Jr Pupil dilation research initially focused upon emotional reactions and then shifted almost entirely to information processing. The present study returns to the initial research and addresses the question of whether pupil dilation in response to nudity reflects general arousal or more specific sexual arousal. Among heterosexual subjects, pictures of opposite sex nudes should produce sexual arousal, while pictures of nudes of either sex should produce a general novelty reaction. Pupil dilation was monitored among men and women viewing pictures of clothed men, clothed women, nude men, and nude women. Pupils dilated more to nude pictures than to the clothed pictures, regardless ofthe sex of the subject or the sex of the target person being viewed. The poet Guillaume Bartas de Salluste called the eyes "windows of the soul" because of the information about internal processes that they convey (Hess & Polt, 1960, p. 349). This topic was examined in studies of pupil dilation among animals in the 1950's (Lowenstein & Loewenfeld, 1963) and among human beings in the 1960's and 1970's (Hess, 1965; Hess & Polt, 1960, 1964; Hess, Seltzer, & Shlien, 1965). The human research began with studies of emotion and shifted toward studies of information processing (Beatty & Ahern, 1979; Beatty & Wagoner, 1978). It is now generally accepted that pupil dilation increases with cognitive processing load (Beatty, 1986; Beatty & Ahern, 1979; Beatty & Wagoner, 1978; Hess & Polt, 1964). The current study returns to emotional responses, specifically responses associated with sexual thoughts in men and women. Hess and Polt (1960) found that the pupils of women dilated more to pictures of babies, mothers and babies, and nude men, while the pupils of men dilated more to pictures of landscapes and nude women. Bernick, Kling, and Borowitz (1968) found that pupil dilation was correlated negatively with heart rate and positively with reported erection among male subjects watching a pornographic film. Hamel (1974), in a study of pupil dilation among females viewing pictures of males and females undressing, found that pictures of males with the most clothing produced the least dilation. In this prior research, there was an emphasis upon the pupil dilation of men viewing pictures of nude women. In the present study, we measured pupil dilation in men and women viewing pictures of clothed women, clothed men, nude men, and nude women. We expected that sexual arousal might produce pupil dilation in response to opposite-sexed nude pictures, while novelty might produce pupil dilation in response to same- or opposite-sexed pictures. METHODS Subjects were 57 men and 50 women recruited from introductory psychology classes, mean age 21.4 years (S.D.=5.3). Four additional subjects who identified themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual and 26 subjects whose pupil dilation data contained extensive errors were eliminated. The problem of losing the data from so many subjects and a possible solution to this problem will be addressed in the discussion section. Each subject viewed on a computer screen a set of 28 pictures: 7 nude females, 7 clothed females, 7 clothed males, and 7 nude males. The pictures included African-American and Caucasian males and females. The pictures were ordered randomly in sets of 4, with each set containing a nude female, a nude male, a clothed female, and a clothed male. Responses to the first 4 pictures were used for familiarization and practice and were not included in the data analysis. The study employed a computer-controlled pupillometry system (Bernhardt, Dabbs, & Riad, 1996). Each picture was displayed for 4 sec, preceded by 4-sec display of grey, on a 15-in. monitor located approximately 18 in. in front of the subject, while the computer collected pupil diameter scores generated by an ISCAN (Cambridge, MA) pupillometry device. The system measured pupil diameter every 0.5 sec, producing 16 measurements per picture for each subject. RESULTS The data consisted of 16 pupil diameter measurements for each of the 24 pictures for each subject, or 384 scores per subject. Each score was converted to a percent of the subject's mean score. Scores more than 25% above or below the subject's mean (often resulting from eye blinks), were treated as missing data and set equal to 100. Scores were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance that treated Subject Sex as a between- subjects factor and Picture Sex, Picture Nudity, and Time as within-subjects factors. Results of the analysis are summarized in Table 1. The three most significant effects in Table 1 involved nudity and time: pupil size increased more over time when viewing nude than when viewing clothed stimuli. The other significant effects involved picture sex as well as nudity, reflecting especially large measures in pupil size when viewing nude males. Figure 1 shows the pattern of more dilation for nude than clothed stimuli. Figure 1 also shows the striking effect among all subjects across all stimuli of an initial sharp reduction in pupil size immediately after the onset of the stimulus. DISCUSSION Hess had emphasized dilation in response to nude opposite-sex pictures (Hess et al., 1965), but we found that pupil dilation to nudity occurred irrespective of the sex of the subject. It appeared that the novelty of nude pictures of either sex produced dilation, and the greater novelty of nude male pictures produced greater dilation. The striking drop in dilation immediately after the onset of the visual stimulus has been reported before (Young, Han, & Wu, 1992) but generally has not been attended to in pupillometry research by psychologists. The effect indicates that physical qualities of a visual stimulus in addition to its brightness value can effect the size of the pupil. One way of circumventing this problem is to use non-visual stimuli. Using non-visual stimuli has the additional advantage of allowing subjects to look wherever they wish rather than having to attend to visual stimuli presented by the experimenter. Research of this nature would be facilitated by using a miniature eye camera system mounted on a headband, which could monitor pupil dilation of subjects engaged in problem solving and social interaction in free-ranging conditions. Such a system would also prevent the loss of data arising from movements of the head. REFERENCES Beatty, J. (1986). Task evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources. Psychological Bulletin, 91, Beatty, J., & Ahem, S. (1979). Pupillary responses during information processing vary with scholastic aptitude test scores. Science, 205, Beatty, J., & Wagoner, B. L. (1978). Pupillometric signs of brain activation vary with level of cognitive processing.Science, 199, Bernick, N., Kling, A., & Borowitz, G. ( 1968). Physiologic differentiation of sexual arousal and anxiety. Psychosomatic Medicine, 33, Bernhardt, P. C., Dabbs, J. M., Riad, J. K. (1996). Pupillometry system for use in social psychology. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 28(1), Hamel, R. F (1974). Female subjective and pupillary reactions to nude male and female figures. Journal of Psychology, 87, Hess, E. H. (1965). Attitude and pupil size. Scientific American, 212, Hess, E. H., & Polt, J. M. (1960). Pupil size as related to the interest value of visual stimuli. Science, 132, Hess, E. H., & Polt, J. M. (1964). Pupil size in relation to mental activity in simple problem solving. Science, 143, Hess, E. H., Seltzer, A. L., & Shlien, J. M. (1965). Pupil responses of hetero- and homosexual males to pictures of men and women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, Lowenstein, O., & Loewenfeld, I. (1963). The pupil. In H. Davson (Ed.), The eye, (pp ). New York: Academic Press. Young, R. S., Han, B., Wu, P., (1993). Transient and sustained components of the pupillary responses evoked by luminance and color. Vision Research, 33(4), 437A46. Darren C. Aboyoun, M.A. and James M. Dabbs, Jr., Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Georgia State University. Goya. La maja , Prado. Aboyoun & Dabbs (1998) Dilation Findings: Sex or Novelty? The social behavior and perconality.