Change and stability in the business entreprise Michel Villette

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1 Change and stability in the business entreprise Michel Villette
Managing change Change and stability in the business entreprise Michel Villette (c) Michel Villette 2005

2 Course Objectives: International organizations succeed by managing products, processes, employees, competitors and customers across borders. To do that, they need to get their structures right and their strategies on track. They no more need perpetual change than they need perpetual stability : The trick is to balance change with stability. In this course we will go beyond formulation of intended strategy. We will take into account the human side of organization and analyse management techniques in their social and cultural contexts. We will focus on emerging strategies and consider their strange and sometimes paradoxical relations with intended strategy. (c) Michel Villette 2005

3 summary (c) Michel Villette 2005
Introduction : Failure as an usual output of reformation 1 Limits to voluntary change Unsuccessful attempt Irrelevant attempt Involuntary changes Simulated changes 2 Different types of change Dealing with identity, process or product Incremental versus revolutionary To become a champion or just to survive ? Changing to conform or changing the norms ? Despotic or based on subsidiarity 3 Preparing the organization to change Organizational inertia Developing anticipation Intelligence and strategy Assessing the need to change, or not. Changing before, with or after the others ? Developing agility Slack versus efficiency 4 Leading change Who is going to lead ? The economic-rational argument The psychological argument The leadership-emotional argument 5 Designing the change process Defining the goal : the scrabble syndrome Who is right ? Change process as a trial The quest for the appropriate representatives The quest for relevant measurement Enrolling allies Rewarding allies Overwhelming failure : the emotional dimension 6 Communicating on change project 7 . Learning and unlearning from change Learning from a business situation Change as an obstacle to learn Change as an opportunity to learn 8 Why always pretending to change ? The Mystic of progress and reformation The ecological-rational argument The power argument Stability as a goal ? Conclusion : change, a mater of harmony, rhythm and collective improvisation The jazz band as a model of cooperation-competition Jazz standards as a framework Tacit common knowledge Implicit leadership Repetitions, improvisation and innovation Bibliography Index (c) Michel Villette 2005

4 Transforming Organizations : Why firms fail ?
In too many situations the improvements have been disappointing and the carnage has been appalling, with wasted resources and burned-out, scared, or frustrated employees. To some degree, the downside of change is inevitable. Whenever human communities are forced to adjust to shifting conditions, pain is ever present. But a significant amount of the waste and anguish is avoidable… Discuss the yellow words, give examples (c) Michel Villette 2005

5 summary Involontary changes that are taking place.
The need for volontary changes Organizational inertia Limits to volontary change Managing the change process The role of top management Developping organizationnal agility Avoiding repetitive change syndrome (c) Michel Villette 2005

6 Exercise : Make a graphic modelisation of this process
Short run unvolontary change John P. Kotter, Organizational Dynamics, Addison-Westley, 1978. Demand drops, causing incoming orders to go down, Deliveries go down and shipments to inventory goes up, Top management is alerted by the control system, Top management slow production and reduce the work force, The production plan is changed, people are laid off, and the « no large layoff » belief is shattered. These changes cause the production process to slow, Shipments exceed production, causing inventories to go down, The system restabilizes with the states of five of the elements changed… …But a strike take place… Etc. Exercise : Make a graphic modelisation of this process (c) Michel Villette 2005

7 Moderate-run dynamics John P
Moderate-run dynamics John P. K otter, Organizational Dynamics, Addison-Westley, 1978. Nonalignment between top management and social body : A new president come from outside. After two months, the president and management began to fight. After eight months, the president resigned. Nonalignment between formal Organizational Arrangements, employees profile and environment. A large company had lived in a stable task environment for nearly twenty years. Within a two-year period, the environment became very volatile. Top management discovered that the elaborate procedures and well-structured hierarchy hindered the organization’s efforts to cope with the new non-routine demands placed on it… The type of employee and manager hired and promoted for years found the ambiguity in the new situation threatening and reacted very defensively : top management began to hire a different type of person… Other examples of nonalignment… (c) Michel Villette 2005

8 and dominant coalition
Alignments and nonalignments John P. Kotter, Organizational Dynamics, Addison-Westley, 1978. Employees Corporate culture Formal stucture Operating processes Top management and dominant coalition Technology External environment (c) Michel Villette 2005

9 Long-run dynamics What are the driving forces ?
Young entreprise : The entrepreneur and dominant coalition High technology industries : the technology Very competitive, yet mature industries : the market Very Old, well-established organizations : the internal social system and the formal organizational arrangements. …Whatever direction they move in, the other elements « follow » in order to remain aligned. But, is this « alignement » relevant ? Does-it fit whith the inevitable external and internal changes ? (c) Michel Villette 2005

10 Forces driving the need for major change in organizations ?
Technological change Communication Transportation Networks connecting people globally International Economic Integration Fewer tariffs (gatt) Currencies linked via floating exchange rates More global capital flows Maturation of Markets in Developed Countries Slower domestic growth More aggressive exporters More deregulation Fall of Communist and socialist regimes More countires linked to the capitalist system More privatization The Globalization of markets and competition More Hazards More competition Increased speed More opportunities Bigger markets Fewer barriers More large-scale change in organizations To avoid hazards and/or capitalize on opportunities, firms must become stronger competitors. Typical transformation methods include : Reengineering ; restructuring ; quality programs ; mergers and acquisitions; Costs reduction ;productivity program; Strategic change ; organizationnal learning, … (c) Michel Villette 2005

11 The need for adaptability
The key to an organization’s long-run survival and prosperity lies in its ability to adapt to inevitable external and internal changes. Elements change over time and are all interdependent such that changes in one tend to affect all the others, so numerous changes in the system are inevitable over the long run. Change can esily create nonalignments. Nonalignments, when not corrected quickly, drain energy out of the system. Therefore, unless an organization has an unlimited supply of surplus matter/energy, its ability to correct nonalignments ( that is, to adapt) will directly affect its prosperity and survival over the long run. (c) Michel Villette 2005

12 Seuls les paranoïaques survivent.1 Andrew Grove,
Soit un groupe de randonneurs en montagne… Un « oiseau de mauvais augure » demande si l’on est bien sur le bon chemin. Le chef de file lui fait signe de se taire et l’on continue à marcher… A mesure que l’on avance sans trouver les repères attendus, l’inquiétude grandit. Il arrive un moment où le chef de file s’arrête et reconnaît à contre-cœur, en se grattant la tête que l’on s’est effectivement perdu. En affaires, l’équivalent de ce moment est le point d’inflexion stratégique (c) Michel Villette 2005

13 Seuls les paranoïaques survivent.2 Andrew Grove,
Une entreprise doit cultiver sa capacité à déceler à temps une modification radicale de son paysage stratégique : identifier les « points d’inflexion stratégique ». Encourager le débat interne, cultiver la diversité, l’écoute des clients. Ne pas confondre un simple « bruit » avec un vrai « signal ». Si nécessaire réagir très vite et très fort. Attention : Le dirigeant est le plus mal placé pour perçevoir et interpréter le signal, mais une fois le signal reçu, il est le seul à pouvoir lever l’ambiguïté dans l’interprétation des signes et piloter une réaction assez rapide et vigoureuse. (c) Michel Villette 2005

14 « Stratégie de changement » une formule dont le sens varie selon le contexte.
Horizon de survie long A B PERTES PROFITS A: La RATP, la SNCF, mais aussi des organismes publics comme l’Ecole Polytechnique, AgroParisTech, Le musée du Louvre, l’Assistance Publique de Paris sont des organisations installées depuis longtemps dans une position où ils peuvent perdre de l’argent pendant des années sans que leur existence en soit menécée. Pour ces entreprises, “stratégie de changement” signifie “réduire un peu les pertes” (pour éviter les protestations) ou bien “améliorer suffisament la qualité des prestations pour que la légitimité de l’organisme ne soit pas remise en cause. B : Des entreprises capables de signer des contrats à long terme avec leurs clients ou d’avoir des revenus récurrents et prévisibles sont capables d’avoir à la fois une excellente rentabilité et de très bonnes chances de survie à long terme : exemple : Générale des Eaux puis Véolia ; Vinci ; Lafarge… Pour ces entreprises, “stratégie de changement” signifie gagner quelques points de taux de profits, ou bien gagner quelques % de part de marché ou bien empécher un concurrent de s’intaler afin de maintenir une position dominante sur le marché. C: Entreprises en crise, menacée par les banquiers d’une coupure des lignes de crédit : dépot de bilan. Pour ces entreprises “stratégie de changement” signifie revendre des activités pour dégager du cash, licencier pour réduire les couts, restructurer, augmenter le capital, se faire racheter… D : Entreprises de type Hight Tech qui peuvent gagner beaucoup d’argent tant qu’elles sont a la pointe de l’innovation, et disparaitre en moins d’un an si un concurrent s’impose sur le marché. Pour ces entreprises, “stratégie de changement” signifie péréniser le business : organiser l’innovation, racheter les rivaux, diversifier les sources de revenu, réduire les risques… C D Horizon de survie court (c) Michel Villette 2005

15 Stratégies de changement : approche par la comptabilité analytique
Cas N°1 Cas N°2 Cas N°3 Cas N°4 CA - CVD <0 >0 - CFD - CFI = R net Mademoiselle de Saint Cyr ouvre une boutique de mode en franchise, dans une rue piétonne de Versailles. Au bout d’un an elle se trouve dans le cas N°1 : que doit elle prendre comme décision ? Et dans les cas N° 2,3,4 ? (c) Michel Villette 2005

16 Difficulté des firmes leaders à prévoir les évolutions et à s’y adapter Rumelt R.P. « Inertia and transformation », Strategic Management Society Conference, 1994. Les leaders du logiciel bureautique de 1979 à 1994 : 1: apparition de la classe de produit 2 : capacités de programmation étendues 3 :Interface graphique standardisée Traitement de texte Wordstar Wordstar international Wordperfect Wordperfect Corp. Word pour Windows Microsoft Corp. Tableur Visicalc VisiCorp. Lotus 1-2-3 Lotus Developement Corp. Excel pour Windows Base de données dBase Ashton Tate Paradox 3-4 Borland International Access pour Windows (c) Michel Villette 2005

17 Agility (Plasticity) and Inertia (Rumelt, 1994)
Agility : « The assumption that firms readily respond to exogenous shocks and changes in competitive conditions. » Inertia : « The strong persistence of existing forms and functions. » Discussion : is « Inertia » an appropriate metaphor ? (c) Michel Villette 2005

18 Les sources de l’inertie de la firme (D’après Rumelt, 1995)
Aveuglement sur les évolutions de l’environnement Myopie Orgueil et dénégation Prêt-à-penser. Conformisme de la culture d’entreprise. Faible intérêt à répliquer Les coûts directs du changement effraient. Préférence pour les économies d’échelle, la standardisation, la baisse des prix. Peur de la cannibalisation. Incapacité à apporter une réponse efficace Vitesse et sophistication de l’attaque Manque de compétences et de capacités technologiques Direction défaillante,divisée, instable, affaiblie. Scepticisme ou fatalisme des employés, découragement des cadres opérationnels. Contradictions paralysantes Organisation, structure, procédures, système de reporting bloquent le changement Principes, valeurs et cultures incompatibles Blocages politiques Soutien excessif du pouvoir politique à la stratégie actuelle (reglementation, subventions, commandes publiques…) Influence de groupe de pression externes (c) Michel Villette 2005

19 professional SERVICES
SUBCONTRACT TO CONCENTRATE ON THE CORE BUSINESS : THE OUTSOURCING MATRIX 16 15 14 13 BUY YOUR OWN EQUIPMENT 12 11 10 9 RENT 8 7 6 5 BUY a ready made PRODUCT 4 3 2 1 NO PERSONNEL NEEDED EXTERNAL WORKFORCE professional SERVICES NO WORK Transportation 16 : have a chauffeur to drive your own car 13 : drive your own car 9 : rent a car 2 : take a taxi Providing meals to the personnel. 1 : The employees bring there meals to the workplace 16 : The company has is own integrated restaurant 2 : A restoration company provide a complete service 9 : An automatic distributor provides ready made foods and drinks. Typewriting : …/…. (c) Michel Villette 2005

20 Pay for performance system in Iran
The General manager of Bristol Iran, American by birth and education, was quite impressed in 1978 by the results ot the ne remuneration system in the U.S. and Europe. He discussed with his Personnel Manager how the system could be introduced for the Iranian Sales-staff. The personnel Manager was quite reserved about the proposed system, since Iranian society was not quite used to this type of pay system. However, on the other hand he realised that in wie of the relatively poor economic conditions of Iranian families, salesmen could use an extra financial incentive. Finally, it was agreed that the pay for performance system as it was designed in the States, should be gradually introduced in Bristol Iran. After a difficult perid of introduction of the system to the Iranian sales workforce, the third quarter results indeed showed a significant increase in sales compared to the other Middle Eastern countries. However, in the fourth quarter of the introductory year sales figures fell to a level unprededented. Nevertheless, Hearquarters in St. Louis advised local management in Iran that it should pursue the pay for performance system for a further period. However, the sales results remained quite disappointing for another four quarters, dropping far below “normal” Middle Eastern levels. The General Manager took the issue to the States not knowing the cause of this fierce drop, other than that a significant number of Iranian Salesmen had Quit for comparable jobs in the region. Question : -What do you think night have caused the drop in sales in Iran, with respect to the introduction of the new remuneration system, bearing in mind the successes in the USA and Europe ? Response : Cultural differences Question : -What might be the “resolution” of the problem in terms of salesmen, staff motivation ? Response : Better understanding of the local context. Question : -What have you learned from this case in terms of the way multinational companies are organized with respect to a service function such as personnel ? Response : Better to decentralize the decision making process. About Iran : The Taïfé system is a sophisticated type of social network based on long term solidarities and reciprocity. Gift is the basis of social cohesion. The exchange should not be instantaneous: if so, it will be interpreted as an offence. (c) Michel Villette 2005

21 Why improvement programs fail. Robert S
Why improvement programs fail ? Robert S. Kaufman, Sloan Management Review, Fall 1992, p 4 managerial contradictions : 1. Does the improvement plan provides a context for determining priorities, and joining departments in a common mission ? Ex : maintenance/ production dilemma 2. Are management’s actions consistent with its new goals ? Ex: « communication meeting, without communication. 3. Do Incentives conflict with the program’s goals ? Ex : «  4. Are organizational structure consistent with operations imperatives ? (c) Michel Villette 2005

22 Area for formulation of global corporate objectives :
Profitability Level of profits Return on assets investment equity, sales Yearly profit growth Yearly earnings per share growth Marketing Total sales volume Market share –worldwide, region, country Growth in sales volume Growth in market share Integration of contry markets for marketing efficiency and effectiveness. Production Ratio of foreign to domestic production volume Economics of scale via international production integration Quality and cost control Introduction of cost efficient production methods Doing or buying Finance Financing of foreign affiliates Local borrowing Taxation : minimizing tax burden globally Optimum capital structure Foreign exchange management- minimizing losses from foreign fluctuations Technology Type of technology to be transferred aboard; Adaptation of technology to local needs and circumstances Host Gouvernment Relations Adapting affiliate plans to host governement developmental plans Adherence to local laws, costums and ethical standards Personnel Development of managers with global orientation Management development of host country nationals Research and Development Innovation of patentable products Innovation of patentable production technology Geographical dispersion of research and development laboratories. (c) Michel Villette 2005

23 hypothesis contradicted !
Research by Gates and Egelhoff, 1986, « Centralization In Headqharters-subsidiary relations », Journal of International Business Studies If a subsidiary has to face à more dynamic environment : rapide product change rapid competitive climate change then, more autonomy. hypothesis contradicted ! (c) Michel Villette 2005

24 New Contracts : the key to change
New Contracts : the key to change. Paul Strebel, European Management Journal, Vol 11,N°4 december 1993, p Proposition 1 : If an individual is to change, he/she must be offered a new contract that is more attractive than his/her existing contract net of switching costs. Proposition 2 : When the benefits of the new and existing contracts are balanced, switching costs block contract revision. Proposition 3 : If a change process is to succeed, it must create enough value to provide attractive new contracts for all the necessary players. Implications : Reducing the value of existing contracts by pressure or constraints… Reducing switching costs by advice, good organization, training… Enhancing the value of the new contract by incentives, participation, empowerment… (c) Michel Villette 2005

25 Conditions for a good practice implementation ?
Support form inside and outside the organization Clear definition Of what is good Clear explanations of how to implement the good practice Implementation of the good practice Psychological Security of the implementation’team Mesurement of the implementation success Evidence of the Efficiency of the Good practice Threats to the usual practices (c) Michel Villette 2005

26 Leading change John P. Kotter, Havard Business School Press, 1996.
Créer un sentiment d’urgence et d’insécurité Former une coalition puissante Choisir les bons alliés : expertise, leadership, crédibilité, cohésion de l’équipe. Développer une vision crédible et désirable Imaginable, désirable, faisable, éclairante, souple. Communiquer la vision Des phrases simples, des canaux multiples, répéter, montrer l’exemple, dialoguer, répondre aux objections. Lever les obstacles au changement Adapter les stuctures et les systèmes de gestion, former, informer… Démontrer des résultats à court terme Montrer vite des résultats tangibles de l’efficacité des nouvelles méthodes Bâtir sur les premiers résultats pour accélérer le changement. Maintenir le sentiment d’urgence Rendre les projets dépendants les uns des autres. Ancrer les nouvelles pratiques dans la culture d’entreprise. Montrer le lien entre nouveaux comportements et amélioration des performances Rendre hommage à l’ancienne culture et l’inscrire dans le passé Proposer des portes de sortie à ceux qui refusent les évolutions Veiller à ne promouvoir aucun manager qui ne partage pas fortement les nouvelles valeurs (c) Michel Villette 2005

27 Change : a lasting process Richard Pascale & Tracy Goss, 1992
Morale Index Action plan Commitment of resources + alignment scoping Perseverance Dialogue Bottom To top Task forces formed Cautious optimism Cascading into Lower tiers of organization Wait and see Conflicts between task force demands and ongoing workload Testing Breakdowns and resistance resignation Status Quo - Time (months) (c) Michel Villette 2005

28 Changing the role of top management Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher A
Changing the role of top management Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher A. Barlett, Harvard Business Review, January-february 1995. Strategy-structure-systems doctrine Be the company’s chief strategist, Be its structural architect, Develop its information and control systems, to allocate resources, assign responsabilites and control effectiveness of management. « An organization with its face toward the CEO and its ass toward the customer ! » Purpose-process-people doctrine Manage a portfolio of dynamic horizontal processes : Entrepreneurial process, Competence-Building process, Renewal process, to shape the behaviors of people and create an environnement that enables them to take initiative, to cooperate and to learn. (c) Michel Villette 2005

29 1. The entrepreneurial Process
« The externally oriented, opportunity-seeking attitude should motivates employees to run their operations as if they owned them. » Encouraging bottom-up ideas and initiatives Sensitive balance between discipline and support Disaggregated front-line units Financial autonomy, self-discipline, simple goals Exemple : 3M. Every unit must contribute to the corporate target of 10% growth in sales and earnings ; 20% pretax profit margins ; 25% return on shareholders’equity ; 25% of every unit’s sales must come from products introduced within the past five years. Corporate headquarters with fewer than 150 people. Grow and divide Successful project teams consisting of an entrepreneur with an idea and a small team that believes in it, grow into departments ( or spin off…) (c) Michel Villette 2005

30 2. The competence-Building process
« Big-company advantages lie not only in scale economies but also in the depth and breadth of employees’talents and knowledge. » Top management’s role is to create an environnment that allows competence to develop and diffuse deep within the organization. Top management entrusts the operating units with the challenge of creating the competencies needed to pursue local opportunities. It limits its own role to seeing that those competencies are shared through cross-unit flows of resources, knowledge, and people. Corporate leaders must create a sense of community : « If anything goes wrong in one department, those in other parts of the organization should… help without being asked. » (Kao) « Products belong to divisions, but technology belongs to the company » (3M) An established sense of fairness serves as an organizational safety net for risk takers. By deliberately backing more than one potential solution to a problem, management increases the chances that it will get a winner. The unsuccessful team did not fail ; they provided valuable information about which path to take. (c) Michel Villette 2005

31 3. Facilitate the renewal process
Challenge the company’strategies and the assumptions behind them. « Past wisdom must not be a constraints but someting to be challenged. « Yesterday’s success formula is often today’s obsolete dogma. » Shake up operating units that have grown staid or comfortable. Uses the meetings for contingency planning exercices and built hypothetical scenarios to prepare executives, stimulate their thinking and generate fresh initiatives. « The ability of a company to renew itself ultimately depends on top management’s ability to commit to a few key projects or proposals that will lift the organization into a new orbit. » (c) Michel Villette 2005

32 Organizationnal agility
. Driving force Status quo growth leadership Top/down; 1 to 1 ; consultative communication Vertical ; closed Open ; networking Decision-making Top/down ; authoritarian consensus tasks Rigid ; differentiated Continually reassessed work individual teams loyalty To supervisor and organization To business &learning values Internal knowledge & skills Expertise wherever it is (c) Michel Villette 2005

33 Agility diagnosis Box the numeral where you think your organization is
Agility diagnosis Box the numeral where you think your organization is. Circle the numeral where you would like your organization to be Hierarchial Teams Centralized Decentralized Bureaucratic Entrepreneurial Competitive Cooperative Closed Open Us-Them We Win-lose Win-Win Low Morale High Morale Exclusive planning process Inclusive Planning process Slow to implement Fast to implement (c) Michel Villette 2005

34 Excessive change Eric Abrahamson, Change without pain, Harvard Business school Press, 2004.
Une ingénieur de chez Cisco : En deux ans, 11 changements de supérieur hiérarchique, 8 changement de N+1 et 3 changement de N+2. A chaque fois, de nouveaux projets sont lancés et d’autres abandonnés. Après deux ans, elle est parfaitement déboussolée et démotivée. Ses collègues et elle ne voient plus l’intérêt de se lancer dans de nouvelles initiatives, persuadés que les revirements à venir ne leur donneraient aucune chance d’aboutir. (c) Michel Villette 2005

35 This course was about organizing….
Organizations, institutions, cultures, techniques sont des états de faits qu’on ne peut modifier qu’à la marge et à grands frais. Les changements non-voulus l’emportent sur les changements volontaires et planifiés. Les désajustements provoquent des « crises » que certains prétendent « résoudre ». Les changements volontaires et planifiés ne sont pas tous « rationnels », pas tous « acceptés », pas tous « réalisés ». Lorsque l’inertie organisationnelle est trop forte, l’organisation incapable de s’adapter aux changements externes disparaît. (c) Michel Villette 2005

36 Bibliography (c) Michel Villette 2005
Kaplan Robert S, David Norton « Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Stategic Management System », Harvard Business Review, january-february 1996,pp Kaplan Robert S,David Norton, « Language of Change : An Interview with Robert Kaplan and David Norton », Journal of Strategic performance Measurement, April-May 1998, pp Gaël de Benaze, 2001, « Mise en place d’un plan mondial de réduction des coûts », Revue Internationale de l’Achat, Vol 21, N°2, pp Kotter John P. 1996, Leading Change, Harvard Business School Press, Crozier Michel, 1975, La Crise de l’Intelligence, InterEditions, Paris. Argyris Chris ed. 1995, Savoir pour agir : surmonter les obstacles à l’apprentissage organisationnel, InterEditions, Paris. Glotdratt , the goal, tr.fr, Le but ou L’excellence dans la production. AFNOR gestion, Paris. Bogan Christopher E. English J. Benchmarking for best Practices. Mc Graw Hill, New York. Champy James A. and Hammer Michael, Reengineering the Corporation : A Manifesto for Business Revolution. Harper Collins PUblishers, New York Collins Timothy M. Doorley Thomas L. Teaming up for the 90s. Business One Irwin, Homewood, USA. Crosby Philip B. Quality is Free. The Art of Making Quality Certain. Mac Graw hill, New York, 1980. Goldratt. E.M. The Goal. A process of ongoing inprovement. Creative Output BV, ISBN Hambrick Donald C., Nadler David A., Tushman Michael L., Navigating change : how CEOs, top teams and boards steer transformation, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1998. Goldratt. E.M. The Goal. A process of ongoing inprovement. Creative Output BV, ISBN Haspeslagh P.C. and Jemison D.B. Managing Acquisition, Free Press, 1991. Kanter R.M. The change Masters, Simon and Schuster, 1984. Pettigrew A., The Awakening Giant. Continuity and Change in ICI, Blackwell,Oxford,1985. Stalk G. Hout. T. Competing against Time. The Free Press, New York, 1990. Brunsson N, The Irrational Organization. Irrationality as a Basis for Organizational Change. John Wiley, 1985. Evans Paul, Doz Yves and Laurent André, Human Resource Management in International Firms. Change, Globalization, Innovation. Macmillan, 1989 Latour Bruno. Aramis. La Découverte, Paris, 1992. Midler Christophe. Twingo, L'Auto qui n'existait pas. Inter-édition, Paris, 1994. Mitzberg H. Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, Free Press, 1993. Mumford E. and Pettigrew A., Implementing Strategic Decisions, Longman Group, 1975. Pettigrew Andrew, The Management of Stragegic Change, Basil Blackwell, 1988. Schein E.H. Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey Bass, 1986. Villette Michel. L'Homme qui Croyait au Management. Le Seuil. Paris, 1988. (c) Michel Villette 2005