Survol de l’histoire de l’informatique

Présentation au sujet: "Survol de l’histoire de l’informatique"— Transcription de la présentation:

1 Survol de l’histoire de l’informatique
Anatol SLISSENKO Université Paris 12 © Anatol Slissenko For personal usage only

2 Informatique = Information + Automatique
Ce terme a été introduit en France. Il est très répandu dans le monde à part les pays anglo-saxons où le terme dominant est computer science In the beginning was the Word… Gospel of John Au commencement était le Verbe (la Parole)… Évangile selon Jean Au commencement était le Signe Signe =code  Symbole (sémantique) Signe : son, geste, pictogramme, …

3 Egypte 3000 BC

4 Museum Homepage | Fun+Games
Anatol en hiéroglyphes chinois Museum Homepage | Fun+Games

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6 Les entailles : il y a 20000-30000 ans
Os avec des nombres : 8500 BC

7 cent en décimal et cent en entailles 100
Des entailles sont efficaces pour l’arithmétique: ||||||| + ||| = |||||||||| (7+3= 10) ||||||| · ||| = ||||||||||||||||||||| (7 · 3= 21) Mais inefficaces pour la représentation et la sauvegarde Comparez : cent en décimal et cent en entailles 100 |||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||| |||||||||||||||||||| Comment améliorer? Introduire des symboles pour les grands nombres? Mais l’arithmétique devient difficile! XXV+XXVI=LI (notation latine)

8 Les Egyptiens avaient un système d’écriture hiéroglyphique en 3000 BC.
L’arithmétique est difficile

9 Système sexagésimal Babylonien : 1900 -- 1800 BC
Le premier système positionnel connu (la valeur d’un chiffre dépend de sa position) Les chinois utilisaient un système positionnel en 1300 BC Pour calculer les sommes et les produits assez vite il faut connaître les tables de l’addition et de la multiplication. Pour le système sexagésimal ils sont trop grands (il y a 58 nombres non triviaux : 2, 3, … , 59; la taille de la table est 3364). Mais on peut utiliser différents trucs pour réduire les tables, par exemple 58·58=(60–2)·(60–2) = 602 – 4·60 +4

10 59 symboles du système Babylonien construits à partir de deux symboles
59 symboles du système Babylonien construits à partir de deux symboles. Il n’y a pas zéro !

11 Zéro Babylone: 300 BC; pas de symbole pour la valeur zéro.
Comment distinguer 1 et 60 ? A l’aide du contexte. Finalement un symbole pour une position a été introduit, mais n’était pas considéré comme un chiffre. La valeur zéro et les nombres négatifs ont apparu en Inde autour de AD (peut-être avant). Les nombres négatifs ont été bien compris seulement dans les temps modernes. Même au 18ème siècle les résultats négatifs étaient ignorés comme n’ayant aucun sens.

12 La première `machine’ de calcul connue est l’abaque (boulier).
On pense qu’elle a été inventée par les Babyloniens entre 1000 BC et 500 BC. Mais certains historiens pensent que l’abaque a été inventée par les chinois.

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14 unités C’est une abaque moderne pour le système décimal. L’addition est simple: on commence avec les unités, on met la retenue sur la tige des dizaines, et on continue avec les dizaines etc. dizaines

15 Le traitement de l’information ne se réduit pas au calcul.
On la sauvegarde. On la transforme. On raisonne. Raisonner suppose une logique. Aristote Stagire, Macédoine, 384 - Chalcis, Eubée, 322 BC

16 La contribution la plus renommée d’Aristote comme logicien est sa
théorie de l’inférence, traditionnellement appelée syllogistique (non par Aristote) . La syllogistique est proche de la `logique de pertinence’ (relevance logique). Aristote a développé aussi les notions d’induction et de déduction.

17 A part le calcul numérique,
l’informatique a été fortement stimulée par la sécurité de l’information. Certains moyens de sécurisation de l’information ont été utilisés depuis les temps anciens, à savoir la stéganographie et la cryptographie. La stéganographie étymologiquement veut dire écriture cachée.

18 Dans ses Histoires, Hérodote (486-425 BC) raconte comment vers
on rasa la tête d'un esclave, puis on y tatoua un message qui devint invisible après que les cheveux aient repoussé. Le but était de lancer une révolte contre les Perses. Énée le Tacticien (env. 350 BC) proposa de cacher un message dans un autre texte en changeant la hauteur des lettres ou en perçant des petits trous au dessus ou en dessous des lettres du message de couverture. Cette technique, toujours utilisée au 17ème siècle, fut améliorée par Wilkins qui utilisa des encres invisibles pour inscrire ces petits points au lieu de faire des trous. Cette dernière idée fut reprise par les espions allemands durant les deux guerres mondiales.

19 Chiffrement (cryptage)
Le chiffrement a été largement utilisé déjà par Jules César (en latin Caius Julius Caesar) Rome 100 ou 101 - Rome 44 av. J.-C. César utilisait un chiffrement de substitution qui décale les lettres de l’alphabet. Un décalage de 7 transforme « mot » en « tva ».

20 Pendant les premiers 10—11 siècles AD on voit un développement des
langues modernes et des notations modernes pour les nombres naturels. Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi (خوارزمی en Perse, أبو عبد الله محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي en Arabe) Entre 780 et 850 830 : livre sur les mathématiques “al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala “ (حساب الجبر و المقابلة) ≈ “Le livre abrégé sur le calcul par achèvement et mise en équilibre ". Timbre-poste soviétique avec un portrait imaginé d’al-Khwarizmi 825 : “Sur le calcul avec les nombres hindous” (Kitab al-Jam'a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi) Ce dernier livre explique les nombres décimaux comme nombres indiens dont la source était un livre en sanscrit.

21 Algorithme qui provient du nom latinisé d’ Al-Khowarizmi
Les livres d’Al-Khowarizmi ont été traduits ou utilisés en Europe au 12e siècle. Une contribution importante dans la dissémination de ces connaissances a été faite par Adelard of Bath (1075 – 1160), né à Bath en Angleterre, il a fait ses études en France, en Italie et dans les pays de langue arabe) Cela a donné, en particulier, les mots Algorithme qui provient du nom latinisé d’ Al-Khowarizmi Algèbre qui provient du nom latinisé du mot al-jabr dans le titre de son ouvrage mentionné sur le transparent précédent Via ces sources les nombres décimaux deviennent connus en Europe. Pour cette raison ils s’appellent souvent « nombres arabes » bien que leur origine soit l’Inde.

22 Guillaume d'Occam ou d'Ockham
Ockham, Surrey, vers 1285 - Munich vers 1349 Théologien et philosophe anglais. Elève et professeur à Oxford de 1309 à 1319. Il a établi les fondations pour les équivalences logiques qu’on appelle aujourd’hui Transformations de DeMorgan. Ces équivalences ont été décrites par Augustus DeMorgan 500 plus tard. Pour honorer sa position dans l’histoire de l’informatique un langage de programmation pour INMOS transputer est appelé OCCAM

23 Epoque récente La première machine mécanique de calcul, Machine Arithmétique, a été construite par Blaise Pascal en 1642. Il a produit 50 machines dans les 10 années suivantes. En fait, la machine de Pascal peut additionner directement et soustraire par addition du nombre complémentaire (comme les ordinateurs modernes). Multiplication et division étaient faites par additions et soustractions. Pascal avait des prédécesseurs. Soustraction par addition du nombre complémentaire. Exemple : 117 – 19 = 117+(1000 – 19) sans le chiffre gauche= sans le chiffre gauche = 1098 sans le chiffre gauche = 98. Le nombre 981est le complément de 19.

24 1623 Clermont-Ferrand – 1662 Paris
Blaise Pascal 1623 Clermont-Ferrand – 1662 Paris On voit les roues dentées --- la technique développée par les constructeurs d’horloges.

25 Dans les notes de Léonard de Vinci (autour de 1500)
on trouve un schéma et une description d’une machine à calculer Léonard de Vinci Vinci, près de Florence, 1452 -  Manoir du Clos-Lucé, près d'Amboise, 1519 Un modèle fonctionnel construit selon le schéma de de Vinci

26 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Leipzig 1646 - Hanovre 1716) Step Reckoner
a développé les idées de Pascal et en 1671 a construit le Step Reckoner Cette machine pouvait calculer les additions, soustractions, et aussi les multiplications, les divisions et les racines carrées par des séquences d’additions décalées.

27 Machine à taper. Un brevet pour un outil de ce genre a été délivré en 1714 à l’ingénieur anglais Henry Mill. Une des premières machines à taper commerciales a été inventée par Christopher Latham Sholes ( ), ingénieur américain, brevetée en Il a conçu cette machine avec ses partenaires S. W. Soule and G. Glidden. La fabrication a commencé en 1873 par Remington Arms Company

28 AZERTY: même considérations pour
1870 Hansen Le clavier QWERTY a été conçu en 1868 par Christopher Latham Sholes. Les paires de lettres les plus usitées dans la langue anglaise sont réparties aux extrêmes du clavier. De cette manière, la vitesse de frappe est réduite et les tiges se coincent plus rarement. Remington a acquis ce clavier en 1873. AZERTY: même considérations pour le français. 1874 1878

29 Joseph Marie Jacquard Lyon 1752 - Oullins, Rhône, 1834
Inventeur français. Peu après 1800, s'inspirant notamment des travaux de Vaucanson, il donna sa forme définitive au métier à tisser qui porte son nom, équipé d'un mécanisme qui permet la sélection des fils de chaîne par un programme inscrit sur des cartons perforés. Jacques de Vaucanson (1709 - 1782) Inventeur français. Après avoir créé trois automates célèbres, il fut chargé, à partir de 1741, de réorganiser l'industrie de la soie. Il créa de nombreuses machines préfigurant les machines-outils ainsi qu'un outillage perfectionné (notamment un tour à charioter), pour les fabriquer.

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32 Les cartes perforées étaient utilisées pour représenter la musique pour les pianos mécaniques, machines de tabulations, programmes pour les ordinateurs etc.

33 Charles Babbage (Teignmouth, Devon, 1792 - Londres 1871)
Mathématicien britannique. Il imagina, et s'efforça en vain de réaliser, une machine à calculer commandée par un programme enregistré sur des cartes perforées, qui peut être regardée comme l'ancêtre des ordinateurs.

34 En 1822 Babbage a conçu un Engin Différentiel
(Difference Engine ) pour calculer automatiquement des tables de fonctions mathématiques. Il n’avait pas fini la réalisation de cette machine quand il est arrivé à l’idée d’une machine plus sophistiquée qu’il a appelée Engin Analytique (Analytical Engine). Cette dernière machine devait avoir des traits des ordinateurs modernes : ● contrôle séquentiel ● branchement ● boucles. L’utilisation des cartes perforées a été prévue pour introduire les programmes et les données.

35 Augusta Ada Lovelace Byron, (Augusta) Ada, Countess of Lovelace ( ) Mathématicienne britannique. Fille du poéte George Gordon Byron Brillante mathématicienne, Ada était parmi le petit nombre de personnes qui ont vraiment compris la vision de Babbage. Elle a programmé pour Engin Analytique. Sa contribution dans le développement de l’informatique a été honorée par l’attribution de son prénom au langage de programmation Ada.

36 Machine de Babbage

37 Babbage a travaillé sur le développement de son Engin Analytique
depuis 1830 jusqu’à sa mort en 1871, mais malheureusement il n’a jamais été fini. On dit souvent que l’obstacle principal était le niveau de technologie de cette époque. C’est discutable car en 1834 deux ingénieurs suédois Georg et Edward Scheutz ont construit une petite machine différentielle selon la description de Babbage.

38 Sir Charles Wheatstone (il a aussi inventé l’accordéon)
1837: Le télégraphe britannique a été inventé par Sir Charles Wheatstone (il a aussi inventé l’accordéon) et Sir William Fothergill Cooke, ingénieur Ce télégraphe utilisait 5 fils pour coder les lettres La même année un inventeur américain Samuel Finley Breese Morse a développé le premier télégraphe américain (breveté en 1840 ) qui utilisait ce qu’on appelle le code de Morse (point – tiret) transmis via un seul fil Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791 – 1872) , inventeur et peintre américain Les deux méthodes sont utilisées pour la transmission de données dans les systèmes informatiques modernes.

39

40 George Boole Lincoln 1815 - Ballintemple, près de Cork, 1864 Au temps où Babbage luttait pour construire son Engin Analytique George Boole, mathématicien et logicien britannique, a posé les fondements d’une partie importante de la logique mathématique moderne (l'algèbre de Boole). Vrai = 1, Faux=0 X et Y est vrai ↔ (X et Y)=1 ↔ X=1 et Y=1 ↔ X∙Y=1 conjonction (X ou Y) = 0↔ (XvY) =0 ↔ X=0 et Y=0 disjonction ¬X=1 ↔ X=0 négation X·(YvZ) = X·Y v X·Z

41 Un autre mathématicien britannique Augustus De Morgan
1806 - 1871 a fondé, en même temps que Boole, la logique des classes et des relations, et formalisé un ensemble d’opérations logiques connues aujourd’hui comme les transformations de De Morgan. ¬(X·Y) = (¬X v ¬Y)

42 Herman Hollerith Buffalo 1860 - Washington 1929, USA Ingénieur américain. Il inventa les machines à statistiques à cartes perforées de Jacquard (1880) et fonda la Tabulating Machine Corporation (1896), qui deviendra IBM en 1924.

43 Tabulateur de Hollerith

44 Guglielmo Marconi Bologne 1874 - Rome 1937
1895: Guglielmo Marconi transmet un signal radio. 1896 : Brevet pour le premier télégraphe sans fil. Guglielmo Marconi Bologne 1874 - Rome 1937

45 1904: Sir John Ambrose Fleming (1849 - 1945),
ingénieur britannique, invente la lampe à vide (diode) 1906: Lee de Forest fait une triode grille de contrôle anode cathode Le courant passe ou ne passe pas de la cathode à l’anode en fonction de la tension sur la grille. Ce phénomène peut modéliser une commutation (switch) de 2 états. triode

46 1908: Campbell Swinton, scientifique britannique, décrit une méthode
de balayage électronique (electronic scanning) qui présage l’utilisation du tube à rayons cathodiques pour la télévision 1915: Manson Benedicks, physicien, découvre que le cristal de germanium peut être utilisé pour convertir le courant alternatif en courant continu; cela présage les puces (microchips) 1917: Le mot "robot" (dérivé du mot tchèque pour travail) est introduit par Karel Čapek (1890 - 1938 ) dans sa pièce de théâtre R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots).

47 1927: la première démonstration de TV aux Etats-Unis.
Le son est transmis via les fils téléphoniques. 1928: Vladimir Zworykin invente le Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) qui sera utilisé comme le premier élément de mémoire d’ordinateur Vladimir Zworykin (Mourom 1889, Russie - Princeton 1982, USA) Ingénieur américain d'origine russe. Surtout connu pour son invention de l'iconoscope (1934), premier d'une longue lignée de tubes électroniques utilisés en télévision. 1929: Des signaux de TV en couleur sont transmis. 1928: L’horloge à cristal de quartz rend possible une précision de maintenance du temps sans précédent.

48 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Konrad Zuse (Berlin 1910 - Hünfeld 1995) Ingénieur allemand. En il a construit l’ordinateur électromécanique Z3, qui utilisait la numération binaire et le procédé de calcul en virgule flottante, et qui peut être considéré comme le premier ordinateur. Electromécanique veut dire que pour implémenter les commutations entre 2 états on utilise des relais électromécaniques. Zuse a développé un des premiers langages de programmation                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

49 1934: Konrad Zuse commence son travail sur la conception
d’ordinateurs. Il comprend qu’un ordinateur doit avoir un contrôle, une mémoire et une unité arithmétique 1936: Zuse comprend que des programmes composés de suites de bits peuvent être mis dans la mémoire (stored) et dépose un brevet. 1938: Zuse costruit le Z1 -- le premier ordinateur numérique binaire électromécanique (digital electromechanical binary computer) du monde. Il raffine la conception qui donne le Z2. : Konrad Zuse achève le Z2 qui utilise les relais téléphoniques à la place des circuits logiques mécaniques.

50 Le lien entre l’algèbre de Boole
et les circuits de commutation a été compris en 1886 par Charles Pierce ( ), mathématicien, logicien, philosophe américain Cette idée est devenue opérationnelle seulement en 1938 après la publication de la thèse de Claude Elwood Shannon (1916 -  2001, USA)

51 Système binaire: système positionnel de base 2
7 = 1·22+ 1·21 + 1·20 4 = 1·22+ 0·21 + 0·20 7+4 = =1011= 1·23+ 0·22+ 1·21 + 1·20 Emetteur Les tables d’addition et de multiplication sont très simples: 0+0=1+1=0, 0+1=1+0=1 0·0=0·1=1·0=0, 1·1=1 (conjonction) Base Collecteur X+Y=UZ (l’addition de 2 bits) : Z = X+Y mod2 = (X v Y) · (¬X v ¬ Y) U = X·Y Un transistor peut représenter 2 états: le courant passe ou ne passe pas entre Emetteur et Collecteur en fonction de la tension sur la Base.

52 Peut être utilisé comme commutateur (switch)
Conjonction A·B C’est une idée très approximative car il faut contrôler les commutations!

53 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1937 : George Robert Stibitz (1904 - 1995, USA) de Bell Laboratories construit une machine numérique électromécanique. 1940 : il réalise une connexion entre son ordinateur et une télé imprimante qui permet de communiquer avec l’ordinateur à distance (le premier exemple de calcul à distance)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

54 1939– 1941: John Vincent Atanasoff et
un étudiant brillant Clifford E. Berry développent le premier ordinateur électronique ABC ( ). Il n’était ni universel (seulement solution des équations différentielles), ni vraiment fonctionnel. John Vincent Atanasoff ( ) Clifford E. Berry ( )

55 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a La cryptanalyse pendant la guerre de a stimulé le développement des ordinateurs Machines allemandes de chiffrement Enigma Lorenz Plus compliqué qu’Enigma                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

56 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Contribution polonaise : ils ont cassé la première Enigma militaire, développé les premiers éléments de la cryptanalyse moderne et construit une machine mécanique « Bomba » qu’ils ont utilisée pour ce décryptage. Henryk Zygalski ( ) Marian Adam Rejewski (1905 – 1980)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

57 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Bletchley Park. Le centre britannique de l’interception et du décryptage pendant la guerre Aujourd’hui c’est un musée.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

58 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Bletchley Park Alan Mathison Turing Londres 1912 - Wilmslow, Cheshire, 1954 1937 : article On computable numbers Introduit les notions de machine de Turing. et de machine universelle. La notion de machine universelle a permit d’éclaircir la structure des ordinateurs avec le programme stocké dans la mémoire. Cela a été fait par John von Neumann qui connaissait bien cette notion.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

59 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Bletchley Park Bombe (nommé après Bombe polonais) Une machine électromécanique utilisée par A. Turing à Bletchley Park pour le décryptage                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

60 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a COLOSSUS Le premier ordinateur électronique vraiment fonctionnel 1943 [December]: Colossus, un ordinateur britannique électronique (vacuum tube computer), est opérationnel au Bletchley Park grâce à Alan Turing, Tommy Flowers et M.H.A. Newman. Il a joué un rôle crucial dans le décryptage des chiffrements allemands.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

61 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Bletchley Park COLOSSUS 2                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

62 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), L’ordinateur entièrement électronique développé et construit sous la direction de John Eckert (1919 – 1995, USA ) et John William Mauchly (1907 --1980, USA) L’ancêtre des ordinateurs commerciaux                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

63 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a John William Mauchly (1907 - 1980)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

64 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a J. Presper Eckert Jr., Philadelphie 1919 - Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvanie, 1995                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

65 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) [1946]                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

66 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a ENIAC: un monstre de 30 tonnes, 200 kW de consommation d’énergie nécessitait un climatisation puissante 19000 lampes électroniques 500 relais Des centaines de milliers de résistances, condensateurs, inducteurs 42 boîtes 180x60x30 cm Données: cartes perforées Programme: connexions à la main Multiplication de 2 nombres de 10 chiffres: 3,5 ms Un portable moderne est au moins 10 millions fois plus puissant                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

67 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1945: J. Presper Eckert et John Mauchly signe un contrat pour construire l’EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). 1945 [June]: John von Neumann clarifie le concept de programme stocké dans le rapport du 30 Juin 1945 sur la conception de l’EDVAC . Cela donne le terme « l’architecture de von Neumann » Johann ou John von Neumann ( Budapest 1903 -  Washington 1957)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

68 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Le premier `bug’ dans le contexte de calcul à l’aide d’un ordinateur. 9/9/1945 : une mite (phalène) a bloqué un relais de Mark II au Naval Weapons Center à Dahlgren, Virginia. Il a été mis dans le rapport ("First actual case of a bug being found.“)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

69 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a La découverte de ce bug est traditionnellement attribuée à l’Amiral (1983) Grace Murray Hopper ( ) mais peut-être elle n’était pas là. Elle est un pionnier dans la construction des compilateurs.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

70 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Il y a un avis que le mot "bug" n’était pas utilisé dans ce sens auparavant. Non : In fact the word "bug" was already being used in Thomas Edison's time to imply a glitch, error, or defect in a mechanical system or an industrial process. Furthermore, "bug" was used as far back as Shakespearean times meaning a frightful object (derived from a Welsh mythological monster called the "Bugbear"). 1951 (commencé en 1948): UNIVAC . Le premier ordinateur commercial.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

71 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1947 (décembre) : Le premier transistor en germanium (point-contact transistor). Bell Laboratories, USA. William Shockley (1910 - 1989) , Walter Brattain (1902 - 1987) et John Bardeen (1908 -1991) 1950: First bipolar junction transistor. Shockley. Plus fiable.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

72

73 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1952: G.W.A. Dummer, spécialiste en radar britannique, conçoit les circuits intégrés (article). 1958: Jack Kilby, Texas Instruments, fabrique le premier circuit intégré sur germanium. 1961: Robert Noyce, Fairchild Semiconductor, fabrique un circuit intégré sur silicium, plus compliqué. Kilby ( ) Noyce                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

74 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1971 : le premier microprocesseur, Intel 4004 Intel 4040: 740 KHz, 24-pin – la même vitesse que Intel 4004, une plus grande mémoire Intel 4004 Ce microprocesseur intègre les opérations logiques, arithmétiques etc., la mémoire et d’autres services                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

75 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1972 : microprocesseur Intel 8008, une grande réussite 1973 (mai) : le premier micro-ordinateur Micral (France). ……………………………………………………………….. 1981 : l'Osborne 1, le premier ordinateur portable (presque 10 kg), fut mis sur le marché. 1984 : Apple commercialisa le Macintosh qui a donné un « standard » de PC (personal computer), en particulier d’interface graphique avec les icônes. Steve Jobs Apple II, fin des années 70 Apple Macintosh Steve Wozniak                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

76 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Superordinateurs 1976: Sortie du premier Cray, le Cray-1. Succès total, avec 160 MegaFlops (Flop floating point operation. Les opérations avec la virgule flottante sont les plus lentes. L’idée de la virgule flottante : si on a 10 chiffres on peut mettre la virgule dans différentes positions, cela permet d’avoir soit la partie entière plus grande soit une plus grande précision. ) Seymour Roger Cray ( ), USA                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

77 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Super-ordinateurs 2005: BlueGene/L, IBM, jusqu’à 136 TeraFlops Processeur: Power PC 440 GHz (2.8 GFlops)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

78 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a LOGICIEL (SOFTWARE) Premiers langages de programmation: -- C. Babbage, A. Lovelace -- K. Zuse -- G. Hopper ………………………………………. : Alan Turing écrit de l’intelligence artificielle. Il introduit « Le test de Turing » pour mesurer « l’intelligence » d’un ordinateur. (Après combien de tentatives devine-t-on qu’on parle avec un ordinateur et non avec un être humain.)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

79 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Langages de programmation modernes Fortran. (Formula Translator). Le premier langage de programmation moderne. Conçu en 1954 sous la direction de John Backus (né en 1924) Compilateur: 1956 25,000 lignes de code machine Fortran, qui évolue, est largement utilisé aujourd’hui pour le calcul scientifique : météo, séismologie, aérodynamique (avions, missiles), hydrodynamique (bateaux, sous-marins), physique (nucléaire, …), mécanique, … Ce sont les domaines d’application des super-ordinateurs.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

80 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Algol : 1958, équipe internationale (avec participation de J. Backus) Ada : les années Initiative du Ministère de la défense des Etats-Unis Simula : 1967, le premier langage orienté objet. Ole-Johan Dahl et Kristen Nygaard, Oslo Smalltalk: (version moderne), langage orienté objet. Alan Kay. Ole-Johan Dahl Kristen Nygaard Alan Kay                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

81 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Unix et C (les années 70). L’Unix fleurit, et il nourrit l’informatique jusqu’à aujourd’hui. C’est le système d’exploitation (operating system) le plus connu. Dennis Ritchie (né en 1941) Kenneth Thompson (né en 1943)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

82 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a DOS: 1973 – 1981 1981: MS-DOS 1988 : MS-DOS avec interface graphique et la souris 1995 : Windows 95 (basé sur MS-DOS 7.0) 1984 : le début de MacOS. L’interface des ordinateurs Apple reste la meilleure interface d’utilisateur, et leurs systèmes d’exploitations sont les plus fiables parmi les systèmes répandus (Windows, Linux). Remarquons que les systèmes MacOS 10+ sont fondés sur Unix. MacOS1 interface                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

83 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Souris: 1964, Doug Engelbart (né en 1925) L’utilisation commerciale 20 ans plus tard. Doug Engelbart est un des pionniers de l’Internet 1968 : il réalise la première vidéo conférence                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

84 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a Réseaux 1967 : Lawrence G. Roberts publie un article sur Arpanet 1969: Arpanet est opérationnel Le premier réseau global ARPA : Advanced Research Projects Agency Ministère de la défense des Etats Unis                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

85 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1971: Ray Tomlinson envoie le premier message Les années 70 : Développement de l’Ethernet (les services en matériel et en logiciel pour faire des réseaux locaux) 1973: ordinateur PC Alto avec une souris, l’Ethernet et une interface Graphique. La contribution principale est faite par Robert Metcalfe (né en 1946) Il a participé aussi dans le développement de l’Arpanet 1975: Metcalfe développe l’Ethernet pour le premier réseau local (LAN)                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

86 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1979 : les premiers téléphones cellulaires sont testés à Chicago et au Japon 1983 : le passage aux TCP/IP de l’Arpanet marque la création de l’Internet global TCP= Transmission Control Protocol, IP = Internet Protocol. TCP/IP est une famille de protocoles qui permettent de partager les ressources des réseaux globaux. Ils sont le fondement des réseaux modernes. Les auteurs des protocoles TCP/IP                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

87 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1984 : DNS (Domain Name System) : Network Working Group. Les adresses sont attribuées par Network Information Center (NIC). Pour être visible sur le web il vous faut avoir un nom enregistré dans Le DNS. 1989 : le World Wide Web (www) est conçu par Tim Berners-Lee au CERN (Centre Européen de la Recherche Nucléaire) Le premier prototype est créé en 1990.                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

88 IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM)
The Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches, and was described as sounding like a "roomful of ladies knitting." The machine contained more than 750,000 components, was 50 feet long, 8 feet tall, and weighed approximately 5 tons! a 1989 : Le système américain de positionnement par satellite est craqué par un hacker de 14 ans 1991 : Paul Linder et Mark McCahill créent le premier browser pour l’Internet Gopher 1993 : Mosaic, le premier browser graphique est créé par Marc Andreessen à l’Université d’Illinois à Urbana-Champaign Il est un des fondateurs de Netscape 1997 : plus de 150 pays sont connectés à l’Internet                                                                          IBM automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) (Courtesy of IBM) Although the Mark I is considered to be the first digital computer, its architecture was significantly different from modern machines. The device consisted of many calculators which worked on parts of the same problem under the guidance of a single control unit. Instructions were read in on paper tape, data was provided on punched cards, and the device could only perform operations in the sequence in which they were received.

89 On arrive à l’époque de la recherche et de la protection d’information
Recherche : exemple Google Google Boys - Sergy Brin & Larry Page Le mot « Google » a été introduit en 1938 par Milton Sirotta, un neveu de 9 ans du Mathématicien américain Edward Kasner pour nommer le nombre représenté par 1 suivi par cent zéros. Google utilise ce terme pour souligner le but de cette entreprise de faire une quantité immense d’information accessible sur le Web.

90 L’informatique d’aujourd’hui est en pleine expansion.
On voit un progrès impressionnant dans les applications de l’informatique non traditionnelles : réalité virtuelle, intelligence artificielle, contrôle de robots, conception et analyse industrielle, biologie, … Modélisation du comportement d’un enzyme à l’aide d’un super-ordinateur

91 Parmi les grands défis de l’informatique d’aujourd’hui on trouve
-- le problème de la qualité du logiciel -- le problème de l’utilisation et de l’analyse des énormes quantités de données disponibles -- le problème de la sécurité des systèmes informatique …………………………………………………………………………..